If you have been reading about WADA prohibited list and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-01-31. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
AOD-9604 is typically supplied as a lyophilized white to off-white powder. In this form, it is relatively stable when kept cool, dry, and protected from light. Common storage recommendations place it at −20 °C or below for long-term retention. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are often kept at 2–8 °C for short periods. Freeze-thaw cycles should be minimized because they can promote aggregation or loss of peptide content. Vials are usually sealed under inert gas to reduce oxidation.
Identity and purity are commonly checked with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. RP-HPLC separates the peptide from related impurities and can estimate purity by peak area. Mass spectrometry confirms molecular mass and helps detect sequence variants or truncations. Some laboratories use amino acid analysis or peptide mapping for additional characterization. No single method proves biological activity; these techniques establish chemical identity and purity only. They also require suitable reference standards for confident comparison.
Commercial AOD-9604 may vary in purity, counterion content, and residual moisture. Certificates of analysis often report HPLC purity, mass confirmation, and appearance, but testing methods differ between suppliers. Independent verification is sometimes used because labeled content may not match actual peptide amount. Stability under different pH and temperature conditions is not fully standardized across studies. Researchers generally treat lyophilized material as the reference form for weighing and reconstitution. Moisture content can affect accurate mass measurement.
Clinical development of AOD-9604 included trials in people with obesity. Reports from early-phase and mid-phase studies described modest or inconsistent changes in body weight. A phase IIb program did not meet its primary endpoint, and the compound was not approved for medical use. Differences in formulation, delivery route, and participant characteristics may explain some of the variation. Later investigations explored whether the peptide might have effects in other tissues, including cartilage.
Regulatory treatment of AOD-9604 is shaped by its classification as a peptide hormone. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists it as a prohibited substance, and many national anti-doping organizations adopt that list. It does not hold approval as a prescription medicine in the United States, the European Union, or other major markets. Products sold online are frequently labeled for research use only and may not undergo independent quality testing. Import and possession rules differ by country, so legal status depends on local law.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized form; may appear as cake |
| Solubility class | Water-soluble | Often reconstituted in aqueous buffer |
| Typical storage temperature | −20 °C or below | Protect from light and moisture |
| Typical analytical method | RP-HPLC and mass spectrometry | Used for purity and identity |
| Common synonyms | AOD-9604; AOD9604; hGH fragment 176-191 | Research name and fragment description |
Regulatory interest in AOD-9604 increased after high-profile anti-doping cases involving peptide products. In some cases, the substance was supplied under alternative names or in compounded preparations, complicating traceability. Sports tribunals and anti-doping panels have discussed whether the peptide was explicitly banned at the time of use, leading to clarifications by the World Anti-Doping Agency. For consumers and researchers, the legal status can vary by jurisdiction, and products marketed as research chemicals may lack independent quality verification.
AOD-9604 is listed as a prohibited substance in sport by the World Anti-Doping Agency. It falls under the peptide hormones, growth factors, related substances, and mimetics class on the prohibited list. Anti-doping organizations treat its presence in an athlete's sample as an adverse finding unless a therapeutic use exemption applies. The prohibition reflects concerns about performance enhancement in competitive settings and the difficulty of distinguishing exogenous peptide use from endogenous hormone fragments.
Detection of AOD-9604 in biological samples relies on analytical techniques capable of distinguishing a small synthetic peptide from related endogenous sequences. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry is commonly used for confirmatory analysis. Sample preparation may involve immunoaffinity enrichment or solid-phase extraction to concentrate the peptide. Because the molecule is small and may be present at low concentrations, assay sensitivity and specificity are ongoing analytical challenges. Laboratories also validate methods against reference materials when available.
Interest in AOD-9604 arose from attempts to separate metabolic effects from growth effects attributed to hGH. Early work explored whether the fragment could influence lipolysis or fat oxidation without promoting growth. Those questions remain partly unresolved because human data are limited and results have varied across studies. The peptide is not a hormone replacement for hGH and is not equivalent to hGH in clinical use. Its research history includes both laboratory studies and commercial marketing claims that are not the same as regulatory approval.
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide whose structure corresponds to a C-terminal segment of human growth hormone. It is often described as hGH fragment 176-191, a 16-amino-acid sequence. The peptide was designed to isolate a region of hGH associated with fat metabolism while avoiding the full hormone's growth-promoting actions. Laboratory and commercial materials typically present it as a lyophilized powder for research use. Its identity is defined by amino acid sequence, not by a single brand.
Quality control for AOD-9604 involves verifying identity, purity, and concentration. Suppliers may provide a certificate of analysis listing HPLC purity and mass spectrometry data. Independent verification is advised because peptide products can vary in quality. Researchers should check for counterions, residual solvents, and microbial contamination. Proper documentation supports reproducibility and safety in laboratory studies. When sourcing, institutions often require third-party testing and detailed chain-of-custody records. These steps help ensure that experimental results are attributable to the peptide rather than impurities.
Analytical characterization of AOD-9604 typically employs reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) to assess purity and identity. Mass spectrometry provides confirmation of molecular mass, while amino acid analysis can verify composition. These methods are standard for peptide research chemicals. Because the peptide lacks a distinct chromophore, detection often relies on ultraviolet absorbance at 214 nm or mass spectrometric response. Laboratories may also use capillary electrophoresis for separation. For example, size-exclusion chromatography can detect aggregates.
Stability of AOD-9604 depends on storage conditions. Lyophilized powder is generally more stable than reconstituted solution. Recommended storage is typically at -20°C or lower, protected from light and moisture. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles can cause aggregation or degradation. In solution, the peptide may be susceptible to hydrolysis or oxidation, so aliquoting and cold storage are common practices. Researchers often add stabilizers such as mannitol or trehalose during lyophilization to improve shelf life.
=== Fluorochemical manufacturing workers === People who work at fluorochemical production plants and in manufacturing industries that use PFAS in the industrial process can be exposed to PFAS in the workplace. Much of what we know about PFAS exposure and health effects began with medical surveillance studies of workers exposed to PFAS at fluorochemical production facilities. These studies began in the 1940s and were conducted primarily at U.S. and European manufacturing sites. Between the 1940s and 2000s, thousands of workers exposed to PFAS participated in research studies that advanced scientific understanding of exposure pathways, toxicokinetic properties, and adverse health effects associated with exposure. The first research study to report elevated organic fluorine levels in the blood of fluorochemical workers was published in 1980. It established inhalation as a potential route of occupational PFAS exposure by reporting measurable levels of organic fluorine in air samples at the facility. Workers at fluorochemical production facilities have higher levels of PFOA and PFOS in their blood than the general population. Serum PFOA levels in fluorochemical workers are generally below 20,000 ng/mL but have been reported as high as 100,000 ng/mL, whereas the mean PFOA concentration among non-occupationally exposed cohorts in the same time frame was 4.9 ng/mL. Among fluorochemical workers, those with direct contact with PFAS have higher PFAS concentrations in their blood than those with intermittent contact or no direct PFAS contact.
=== 18 April === Two people were killed in separate Russian attacks in Donetsk Oblast. Russia claimed to have shot down five Ukrainian balloons carrying explosives over Belgorod and Voronezh Oblasts. A Polish national was arrested in Poland on suspicion of spying for Russia as part of a plot to assassinate Zelenskyy during his visit there, following a tip from Ukrainian authorities. EU foreign policy chief Josep Borrell called on EU member states to send anti-missile systems to Ukraine.
The short length of pompilidotoxins implies that the crucial amino acid for receptor binding would be easier to detect in studies based on pompilidotoxins. Additionally, the binding of the α-scorpion or sea anemone toxin to the sodium receptor also includes a complex system of forming three to four additional disulfide bonds. Pompilidotoxins cannot form such bonds. Pompilidotoxins thus provide a special advantage to research, classify, and characterise different isoforms of sodium channels due to their concise and simple structure. They have already been used for neuronal research into the action mechanisms of sodium channels, and the characterisation of receptor functions. Knowing more about the working of sodium channels could greatly contribute to healthcare as sodium channel alterations are associated with a large range of neurological disorders. Persistent sodium currents are especially participating in some variants of epilepsy and MS. Moreover, β-PMTX itself has been associated with being an epilepsy-inducing agent due to its drastic working in increasing neuronal excitability and has been recognized as being especially important for providing insights into the role of sodium currents in epileptogenesis. Thus, even though pompilidotoxins are not used as drugs and therefore have no efficacious nor adverse effects, they are medically valuable as a research model to indirectly improve patient well-being.
=== Kidneys === The renal parenchyma is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of 7 to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Clathurellinae was split into three families: Borsoniidae (also including species from Turridae), Mitromorphidae and Clathurellidae (all previously lumped under the Turridae). Conorbiinae was raised to the rank of family Conorbidae, consisting of three genera: Artemidiconus da Motta, 1991, Benthofascis Iredale, 1936, and Conorbis Swainson, 1840. Mangeliinae and Oenopotinae were combined and raised to the rank of family Mangeliidae, which had previously been lumped in the Turridae). Raphitominae was raised to the rank of family Raphitomidae (also previously lumped in the Turridae). The classification by Bouchet et al. (2011) was based on mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA testing, and built on the prior work by J.K. Tucker & M.J. Tenorio (2009), but did not include fossil taxa. Molecular phylogeny, particularly with the advent of nuclear DNA testing in addition to the mDNA testing (testing in the Conidae initially began by Christopher Meyer and Alan Kohn), is continuing on the Conidae.
== Adverse effects == Side effects are mostly mild and similar to other adenovirus vector vaccines such as the Oxford-AstraZeneca and the Janssen vaccines. However, unlike the Oxford-AstraZeneca and Janssen vaccines evidence does not suggest a risk of vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopenia. However, a report from Argentina published in the New England Journal of Medicine described fatal vaccine-induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis in a young woman after receipt of Sputnik-V.
=== Structure-activity experiments === When the 12-amino acid sequence of 'peptide 3'/CCL2 is aligned with the sequences of the other chemokines CCL3, CXCL8 and CXCL12 5 amino acids are conserved, Cys3, Asp5, Pro6, Trp10 and Gln12. In addition Val11 is also present in CCL3 and CXCL8. The corresponding 11th amino acid in CXCL12 is Ile. Ala4 in CCL2 is also present in CCL3 but the corresponding residue is Leu in CXCL8 and Ile in CXCL12. Inclusion of Leu at position 4 and Ile at position 11 (NH2-EICLDPKQKWIQ-OH) increased the inhibition potency of the peptide to 2-4μM. Removal of the first two residues from 'Peptide 3' (NH2-CADPKQKWVQ-OH) does not lower its BSCI potency. Peptide 3-Leu4, Ile11, the most potent BSCI peptide was chosen for further development. The first two amino acids were removed, and then according to the method of Jameson et al., the amino acid sequence was reversed and the amino acids replaced with D-amino acids. This combined transformation changes the orientation of the amides in the backbone but does not change the position of the amino acid sidechains. The peptide was then cyclised by adding a cysteine to the other end (HO-CLDPKQKWIQC-NH2), and oxidisation to form a disulfide bond to give NR58,3-14-3.
=== Alternative treatments === Elements bordering the metal–nonmetal dividing line are not always classified as metalloids, noting a binary classification can facilitate the establishment of rules for determining bond types between metals and nonmetals. In such cases, the authors concerned focus on one or more attributes of interest to make their classification decisions, rather than being concerned about the marginal nature of the elements in question. Their considerations may or not be made explicit and may, at times, seem arbitrary. Metalloids may be grouped with metals; or regarded as nonmetals; or treated as a sub-category of nonmetals. Other authors have suggested classifying some elements as metalloids "emphasizes that properties change gradually rather than abruptly as one moves across or down the periodic table". Some periodic tables distinguish elements that are metalloids and display no formal dividing line between metals and nonmetals. Metalloids are instead shown as occurring in a diagonal band or diffuse region. The key consideration is to explain the context for the taxonomy in use.
== Personal life == In January 2025, Heppell married his long-time partner, Kate. The couple hyphenated their surname to Turner-Heppell to acknowledge Kate's maiden name. In November and December 2025, Dyson competed on the twelfth season of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!, which began airing on January 18, 2026. He was eliminated on February 11, 2026 after 15 days in the jungle.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Preclinical === CF-602 – adenosine A3 receptor modulator – erectile dysfunction [36] S1B-307 – "central nervous system modulator" – anorgasmia, female sexual dysfunction [37] S1B-408 – undefined mechanism of action – anorgasmia [38] S1B-3006 (S1B0-3006; S1B3006) – "central nervous system modulator" – sexual function disorders [39]
== Clinical trial == The National Institutes of Health announced on 27 February 2015 the commencement of a randomized controlled trial of ZMapp to be conducted in Liberia and the United States. From March 2015 through November 2015, 72 individuals infected with the Ebola virus were enrolled in the trial; investigators stopped enrolling new subjects in January 2016, having failed to reach its enrollment goal of 200 due to the waning of the Ebola outbreak. As a result, although a 40% lower risk of death was calculated for those who received ZMapp, the difference was not statistically significant and ultimately it could not be determined whether the use of ZMapp was superior to the optimized standard of care alone. However, ZMapp was found to be safe and well tolerated.
Bone grafting is a type of transplantation used to replace missing bone tissue or stimulate the healing of fractures. This surgical procedure is useful for repairing bone fractures that are extremely complex, pose a significant health risk to the patient, or fail to heal properly, leading to pseudoarthrosis. While some small or acute fractures can heal without bone grafting, the risk is greater for large fractures, such as compound fractures. Additionally, structural or morcellized bone grafting can be used in joint replacement revision surgery when wide osteolysis is present. Bone generally has the ability to regenerate completely but requires a very small fracture space or some sort of scaffold to do so. Bone grafts may be autologous (bone harvested from the patient's own body, often from the iliac crest), allograft (cadaveric bone usually obtained from a bone bank), or synthetic (often made of hydroxyapatite or other naturally occurring and biocompatible substances) with similar mechanical properties to bone. Most bone grafts are expected to be resorbed and replaced as the natural bone heals over a few months' time. The principles involved in successful bone grafts include osteoconduction (guiding the reparative growth of the natural bone), osteoinduction (encouraging undifferentiated cells to become active osteoblasts), and osteogenesis (living bone cells in the graft material contribute to bone remodeling). Osteogenesis only occurs with autograft tissue and allograft cellular bone matrices.
The jury were not told about the investigation or related concerns. Hindmarsh's testimony was central to the insulin cases. He removed himself from the GMC register in 2024, ending the investigation before its conclusion.
Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is a protein that stimulates cell growth and differentiation by binding to its receptor, EGFR. Human EGF is 6-kDa and has 53 amino acid residues and three intramolecular disulfide bonds. EGF was originally described as a secreted peptide found in the submaxillary glands of mice and in human urine. EGF has since been found in many human tissues, including platelets, submandibular gland (submaxillary gland), and parotid gland. Initially, human EGF was known as urogastrone.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Lyophilized powder is commonly stored at −20 °C or below, protected from light and moisture. Reconstituted solutions are typically kept refrigerated and used within a limited period.
Reversed-phase HPLC and mass spectrometry are standard checks. They confirm peptide purity and molecular mass, but they do not by themselves demonstrate biological activity.
Synthesis, purification, and handling conditions can differ, leading to variations in purity and salt content. Certificates of analysis help, but independent testing is often needed for verification.
No. Major drug regulators have not approved AOD-9604 for weight loss or any other therapeutic indication. It remains an investigational compound studied in research settings.